Luciana Duranti, University of British Columbia

It is the purpose of this talk to examine the shape and content of the knowledge base necessary to build a genuine and enduring professionalism among Asian archivists, and to envision programs of archival education that "form people who can see the values of the past, are ready for the unexpected in the present, and will be inventive in anticipating and meeting the forces of the future. " (1)

Thus, I will discuss education, rather than training. To train is to link archival students to this place and moment, to mold according to a replicable pattern in order to build skills, to deliver practical knowledge and to develop specialized competencies. Education, instead, has the function of forming the professional mind-set and of drawing out the student's intellect to see the whole of the ideas that are at the root of the profession and reveal its unity, so that the student can engage in their development. Because education makes students think like archivists, it enables them to act as archivists-that is, in a way consistent with archival ideas--when confronted with situations never encountered before. At the beginning of this century, an archival educator from Milan, Giovanni Vittani, wrote: "A graduate from a professional school must be armed to deal with problems, to compare situations with what he has learned, and to solve them." (2)

However, some form of training must be an integral part of archival education, because the study of archives is not only a pure science and a discipline, but also an applied science. Thus, within any program of archival education, instruction should be delivered in the methods that are actually implemented in archival institutions, in order to ensure that future archivists carry out archival processes in a way that is efficient, aptly designed, and effective. A strong program of archival education must "imprint the characteristic signs of professionalism by communicating theory, methodology, and general skills of a profession in an environment where it is possible to practice rational inquiry, interdisciplinary work, and research, namely, the university." (3)

The core of the knowledge delivered by any program of archival education is archival science. The intellectual domain of archival science is the nature of the material for which the archivist is responsible, of the activities generating it, and of the work of the archivist. Archival science comprises a theory and a methodology. Archival theory is a system of abstract ideas and propositions that describe what archival material is. The analysis of these ideas and propositions about archival phenomena inform subsidiary ideas about how to treat archival material, which can be distinguished from the former by calling them methodological. Theoretical and methodological ideas and propositions constitute the "pure science" of archives, and serve as a base in terms of which the profession rationalizes its operations in concrete situations. The results of this rationalization constitute the "applied science" of archives, often referred to as practice, a body of experiential knowledge that cannot be intellectually acquired without a prior or simultaneous mastery of the pure science underlying it.

Through reasoned argument and the inculcation of the archival body of theory and methodology, the confidence and competence of the novice professional is developed, along with the conceptual bases of the field. In fact, when students and graduates use theory and methodology in their work, they gain a systematic understanding of what documents were made, received, and kept; how and why this was done; and how and why these activities changed or did not change over time. The knowledge derived from this examination of real situations made in light of theoretical ideas results in literature about types and forms of documents, their relations with their creators, with other documents in the same group or in other aggregations, and with contextual facts and events: this body of literature constitutes "archival scholarship." Because of this scholarly side, the study of archives is not only a pure and an applied science, but also a discipline. A discipline is a form of study characterized by a distinct methodology to gain knowledge: it comprises the rules that discipline the search of the scholar and the knowledge resulting from this search. What distinguishes the study of archives from other disciplines is that the methodological rules for the research conducted on the records and their various contexts, and even on the history of archival institutions, concepts and practices, are determined by archival theory. Thus, theoretical ideas come always first, and guide both archival practice and archival scholarship. (4)

Although a truly academic program cannot be rigid, for theory and methods constantly undergo reassessment and revision, the teaching of theoretical and methodological concepts is the natural response to the challenges of an ever changing documentary environment by a growing and increasingly sophisticated profession seeking to understand and describe its role, purposes and ideals. Through this study, aspiring archivists gain an appreciation of a rich and dynamic archival culture, as organic in character as the records they will care for. Moreover, by conducting research aiming to build theory, students are imbued with that sense of roots, of intellectual and spiritual continuity, of connection with a great universal ideal that they will require as archivists to serve better their institutions and communities. The archival profession worldwide has finally recognized that it is the function of an archival program resident in a university to speculate on the essential nature of documentary activities and phenomena, and to develop, articulate and refine these theories through research, discussion and the study of applications. The archival profession has also accepted that archival students are more than embryonic archivists as they commit themselves to the assimilation and analysis of concepts and become competent to determine the connections between theory and practice. Archival students should be encouraged to view their work as critical to the emergence of new stimulating and significant ideas. This attitude towards the students aids immensely in the formation of committed professionals who have enjoyed exposure to the intellectual and vocational implications of their professional choice and who emerge from their studies with a desire to put their knowledge into creative action. (5)

The Society of American Archivists' guidelines quantified the faith of the American profession in the potential of growth of the archival science and discipline and in the extent of its independence from any other allied or complementary field of knowledge by establishing that "two-thirds of the students' graduate work should be dedicated to the area of archival knowledge." (6) A number of factors have caused the remarkable development of a sizeable independent knowledge base for archivists, but the most significant is the simple reality that archival work has become immeasurably more complex, proactive, and intellectually demanding. Archivists of the 1990s have no longer enjoyed the comforts of relatively static bodies of conventional paper records or the sanctuary of scholarly institutions located within the cultural realm. They have been drawn into all aspects of social and economic life and made to deal with records that demand treatment at the point of creation and in new and often perplexing formats. Assumptions about the role of archivists and the nature of the records have been challenged everywhere, and the presence of a well understood theoretical base for archival action has appeared to be the strongest resource for archival students who will have to deal with sponsors, users, and several allied professions claiming an interest in preserving information of enduring value, and who will be confronted with archival realities strongly conditioned by the use of information technologies. (7)

The content of this body of theoretical and methodological knowledge that comprises the archival science and discipline, for pedagogical reasons, will have to be broken down into multiple courses to be delivered some at the same time and some sequentially, according to the vision of curriculum designers and the practical situation of the educational body responsible for the program (e.g., availability of instructors, facilities, equipment and other learning resources). Whatever will be its organization into units of instructions, the universal content of the core of archival knowledge is easy to summarize.

In his 1988 seminal article on archival education, Terry Eastwood wrote: "Banal as it is to say, the focus of archival studies is the nature of archives, not even the nature of the archivist's duties, for everything flows from an understanding of the nature of the things unto which things are done." (8) "As all archival documents, be they public or private, are the involuntary residue of activities taking place in an administrative context, each archival document, be it ancient or modern, is an instrument for action and means of communication. An archives (or archival fonds) can be looked at in two ways, either as a whole with its constituent parts or as the interconnected parts that together make up the whole. Looking at the whole, one can see that its existence depends on its provenance and on the interrelationship among its parts. Looking at the parts, one can see that the individual existence of each document depends on its relationship with the action it participates into, that is, with its purpose." The latter relationship is embedded in the formal elements of each document, in its language and structure, and in the way its parts are assembled. If archival students do not understand the meaning of those components and the possible types of relationships among them, they cannot understand a document's meaning and purpose. (9) This body of knowledge is the focus of a discipline called diplomatics (meaning "about records"), which originated in Europe in the 17th century and from which archival science developed in the following century. (10) The concepts of diplomatics that constitute the foundation of all archival knowledge are: a) those defining data, information, document and archival document, authenticity, reliability and genuineness, and originality; b) those explaining the status, methods, and forms of transmission of archival documents; c) those analyzing in the abstract the components of a juridical system, and of facts, acts and transactions, and showing the function of archival documents in relation to them; d) those describing the types of persons concurring in the formation of each archival document (i.e., author, writer, originator, addressee, and creator) and the way in which they determine the public or private nature of the documents; e) those related to the process and procedure of formation of archival documents; and f) those illustrating the types and function of the formal elements that determine the external makeup of documents (e.g., physical support, seal, stamp, colour) and their internal articulation (e.g., date, address, salutation, preamble).

Also essential to the understanding of the nature of archival material is the knowledge of how records are used, controlled and maintained by their creators. This area of knowledge is usually called in Anglo-Saxon countries "records management." More recently, in North America, it is called "recordkeeping." In the other parts of the Western world, however, it has always been an integral part of archival science, and in some cases the core of it. One reason is that, in order to understand the archival material one is presented with, one must understand the concepts of registration, classification, scheduling, indexing, etc. and their primary manifestations or types. Another reason is that many archivists, like those of banks, hospitals, industries, etc., are responsible for the entire life-cycle of the archives of their organization. A new reason is that, with the rapid obsolescence of information technology, if archivists do not intervene on the records while they are still current, and in some cases, before their creation, they may never be able to preserve them; thus, current archives are becoming their direct competence, and knowledge about them is becoming an integral part of their professional knowledge.

Once these conceptual foundations are instilled in the mind of archival students, together with the related terminology and the basic literature, the education program can begin to build upon them by examining the archival functions. The function of selection is one intimately linked with the phase of control of the records by the creator, therefore the teaching of the principles governing selection activities inevitably starts with the teaching of classification and scheduling. However, the nature and characteristics of the selection function change as the documents on which it is carried out proceed through their life-cycle, that is, depending on who is responsible for selection (i.e., the creator or the archival program or institution), for whom selection is conducted (i.e., the creator or external users, including all sorts of researchers and the future generations), and for what purpose selection is done (i.e., for administrative-legal purposes or for general-cultural purposes). Therefore, students must be imbued with a deep understanding of the concepts of selection and evaluation, of the principles governing these activities, of the methods for carrying them out depending on responsibility and competence, of the administrative, legal, economic, social and cultural consequences of the choices made, and of the scholarly and professional debates concerning appraisal, as they have developed overtime.

Directly related to selection are the issues of acquisition. Every addition to the archival material preserved by an archival program or institution has to be carried out according to criteria consistent with the nature of the material and the mandate of the program or institution, and must derive from a decision that takes into consideration all relevant factors, whatever their nature. While every country will present specific constraints with respect to acquisition, the concepts and principles that derive from the nature of the records and archival methodology, as well as those that relate to archival management, are generally relevant to all environments and need to be taught as part of the core archival knowledge.

The most traditional component of archival education--and still the central part of the archival methodological body of knowledge as well as the most cherished subject of archival scholarship--is the study of arrangement and description. The principles of provenance and original order, the concepts concerning aggregations of records (e.g.., fonds, series, file, etc.) and the methods for recognizing, identifying and perpetuating their interrelationships, the concepts of levels of arrangement and description, the principles and assumptions underlying descriptive practices, and the rules and standards governing those practices internationally and nationally must constitute the core of any program of archival education. To deal with contemporary needs and circumstances, instruction on description will have to address authority control in archival information systems, the selection of access points for indexing, the construction of thesauri, and the contribution of automation to standards-based retrieval. The knowledge addressing these issues is largely derived from the field of information studies. However, when it is brought to bear upon archival functions, and when its use is informed and governed by the fundamental theoretical ideas of archival science, it is transformed into archival knowledge and becomes an integral part of the core of archival education.

Instruction on the use of automation for archival purposes will thus require an understanding of key concepts in automation as they apply to the archival field. Examples are: data model for archival description and the databases management systems supporting it; separation of data from encoding; separation of authority data from records; integration of metadata and electronic image, types and roles of standards (i.e., data content, data communication, search and retrieval, and presentation standards); and finally an overview of existing standards, such as ISAD(G), ISAAR(CPF), MARC, Z39.50, CGI, SGML/HTML/EAD.

Preservation is the most known archival function and the most difficult to teach without getting into the practicalities of conservation work, as carried out by professional conservators. Aspiring archivists need to understand the entire scope of the preservation function and the long-term implications of choices such as physical custody over distributed custody or the acquisition of records on a fragile or obsolete support. These implications may be of a legal, economical, social, political or even philosophical nature and must be weighted in the broad context in which the archivist operates. Preservation management needs also to be examined in relation to the other archival functions, such as public service, and requires some technical knowledge. Examples of the latter are: the physical properties of the various supports for archival materials; the causes of deterioration for each of them; preventive strategies and techniques; renewal strategies, such as physical and chemical treatment, and reformatting and replacement; disaster prevention and recovery; and methods for ensuring access to audio-visual and electronic documents still protecting the originals.

The final archival function to be addressed by every program of archival education is one whose importance is rapidly increasing as the means of communication become more and more accessible to all sorts of users worldwide: the function of reference and public service. Education in this area must address the general principles and concepts associated with accessibility of archives, the types of uses made of archival material, and the categories of users of archival material. The methodological and practical components of the instruction will cover the organization and delivery of reference service, the pertinent legal and security concerns, ethical issues, and the interaction of archivists and users. The planning and implementation of programs aimed to improve and increase the use, accessibility and appreciation of archival material should also be given significant attention.

In connection with the teaching of public service, a comprehensive program of archival education should address areas of knowledge that do not belong into the archival science and discipline, but would provide a strong support to the formation and implementation of archival decisions. In the same way in which archival description could use the knowledge of standards-based archival automation, the provision of worldwide access to the holding of an archival institution can use the knowledge of basic hardware concepts, database models and structure, records (structure, fields) and technical standards, search vocabularies (controlled and uncontrolled, pre- and post-coordination, etc.), search strategies and techniques (concepts and practical applications), and kinds of software applications and their evaluation. The purpose of instruction in this area is to provide students with familiarity with the process of automating information associated with the management of an archives and with its history, with an understanding of how standards are employed in building databases, and with a knowledge of the role of search vocabularies and search strategies in providing access to the records in databases, and of the use of the search and retrieval tools available in the internet environment. Students will also learn to evaluate software for use in developing archival databases and to read critically the literature on archival automation.

The body of knowledge that I have described above as the core of the archival science and discipline comprises what I consider to be the intellectual armour of the "universal archivists," that is, all the theories and methodologies concerning the nature of the archival material and of the archival functions, plus all the scholarship that has discussed those ideas as they have developed and the practices that are used to implement them in real situations. However, the education of a complete archivist requires much more than the bare bones of the archival core. The need of archivists to study history when approaching their professional discipline finds justification in archival theory itself: if archival material acquires its nature from the circumstances of its creation, and archival documents receive most of their meaning from the sociopolitical, administrative, economic, and cultural context in which they come into being, then every archivist needs to acquire a basic knowledge of that context. While a general knowledge of history has always been considered important for an archivist, the history that traditionally has been considered a necessary component of his knowledge is the history of administration. Archival documents are not a direct expression of social, political, economical or philosophical forces, but they do express them indirectly by translating them in terms of activities aimed at administrative and juridical purposes. Because the essence of archival work is to translate the records in terms of functions, competences, and activities, archivists need, in the words of Jenkinson, "the fullest possible acquaintance with the structure, machinery and development of…Administration." (11)

For similar reasons, knowledge of the legal system and administrative law, and of the principles and methods of business accounting is a component of the archivist's intellectual baggage. In fact, archival material cannot be cared for without constant reference to the complex of interrelationships that links the documents to their juridical-administrative context. The necessity for historic-administrative-legal-financial knowledge, which has always been undisputed in Europe, is formally recognized in the Canadian education guidelines, where it is considered primarily matter for "foundation courses," and in the American guidelines, where it is included in the "contextual knowledge" area. (12) Thus, the issue is not whether education in history, law, economics, and administration is essential, but rather whether archival students should be sent to the pertinent department or faculty to study these subjects or should be instructed in those subjects within the archival curriculum. Terry Eastwood believes that the "integrated route is not just preferable, it is essential," and I agree with him. He writes: "How does the archivist understand context? It seems unlikely that it will be found in the perspective of any other discipline. Therefore, it has to come from within the discipline as an essential part of it." (13) He points out that all traditional European curricula contained and some still contain many subject aimed to instill in the archival students an understanding of context. They were: the history of archives, that allowed for a comparison among archives that came into being and developed in different contexts; the history of the law, that analyzed customs, constitutions, laws, and any rule considered binding by various social groups; the history of administration, which showed the evolution of functions and of the structures necessary to carry them out; special diplomatics, that examined the history of records offices and chanceries, their procedures and their recordkeeping; paleography, that examined writing as a manifestation of a socio-cultural context; and sigillography, heraldry, and all sorts of other philological disciplines that studied the documentary context of different times. Eastwood makes us notice that all these subjects are historical, but not historiographic. The reason for studying them was and still is to understand, critique, interpret, exploit, preserve and communicate the archival heritage for which the archivist is responsible. "These historical studies all of them with a place in the archival curriculum, are essentially auxiliary sciences of archives, if you like, each to be understood and used by archivists for their purposes, the overarching one being the cultivation of a deep sense of the symbiosis of archives with their context." (14)

However, archivists working with modern records may not need to go through all the contextual studies outlined above to be able to analyze the documentary context of the record as it relates to the larger framework of society. The aspects of history, law, and administration necessary to an understanding of the societal context of modern records can be instructed in a couple of courses designed with that purpose in mind. The content of these courses would differ from country to country but it is possible to design a general outline. One course should focus on the legal-administrative context of the archives of the country in question. It should provide an overview of the fundamental law and administration of the country as they affect the creation, accumulation, use and disposition of records. It should study the development of structure, function and activities of various records creating institutions and organizations; and it should examine the current legislative and regulatory environment concerning archival documents and institutions (e.g., copyright law, access to information and privacy law, replevin, tax law, law governing import and export of archival material, law concerning the destruction of archives).

Another course could examine the evolution of the methods of ensuring and assessing the trustworthiness of records as legal and historical evidence overtime; the legal, historical and philological (diplomatic) criteria for evaluating the authenticity of records and of their content; and the socio-cultural underpinnings of both methods and criteria. A course of this kind is particularly important in light of the impact of communication and information technologies on legal, historical, and diplomatic methods for generating and maintaining reliable records and ensuring that their authenticity be preserved over the long term. The fact is that to build a bridge to the past is not enough: the educated person needs to be able to bring his or her knowledge to bear on the present, not to mention the future.

Of course, these proposed courses could not incorporate the philological and linguistic knowledge that is required of archivists working with centuries old records produced in different jurisdictions and cultures. These areas of knowledge cannot be promptly integrated within an archival curriculum as they have their own literature, concepts, and terminology and need to be instructed, of course with archival ends in mind, as auxiliary subjects of archival science. The fact is that, the more we proceed in examining the components of a program of archival education, the more one sees the problem of how to weave the many elements of archival knowledge into the whole cloth of professional education. In 1928, Italian archival writer Eugenio Casanova wrote that, when trying to design an archival education program, 'there is always the risk of demanding and doing too little or presenting exaggerated pretentions." (15) But, Tom Nesmith writes, "there is a difference between what any individual archivist may be required to know well to do a task at hand and what a profession may need to know as a collectivity to do the many tasks it has to do….Professional education is not really about teaching the profession's knowledge exhaustively. As educator Jacques Barzun says, "The truth is, when all is said and done, one does not teach a subject, one teaches a student how to learn it." (16) This is particularly relevant when it comes to the issue of information technology and the way it affects a curriculum of archival education.

The information age has been changing the character and scope of archival material and archival thinking, and it has been inviting the archival field to probe new frontiers and to seek new and fruitful allegiances. By the 1990s, archivists were encouraged to see their future squarely within the burgeoning ranks of the information specialist, and urged to adapt both practice and thinking accordingly. In the view of many initial commentators, information has always been the business of archives and an association with other information professions was a natural evolution, particularly given the integrative power of information technology. It appeared, however, that the "information studies" realm into which archival studies fall is largely that defined by schools of library and information science. These schools have established a special place for themselves in the information universe. Information scientists have been sensitive to opportunities offered by information technology to unify organization and retrieval of quantitative and qualitative information under a single paradigm. They have, both in literature and in curriculum design, placed a particular emphasis on information transfer and the role of the information intermediary. In the process, however, they have not encouraged an understanding of the meaning of information itself or of where the common ground with an archival discipline lies. Instead, they have paid particular attention to competencies in information technology, including the management of electronic records and the application of automated techniques. (17) Following these trends, the Society of American Archivists, in developing a curriculum for automation education, took a particularly active role in encouraging and defining education and training in information technology. (18) Beyond such practical measures, there was insistence that the archives field embrace the information paradigm and seek a more complete educational integration with other information professions. However, a few years later, the SAA guidelines incorporated the study of information technology within the archival knowledge area. The description of the records management component included these statements: "Instruction should include records control as it refers to information systems and records forms; recordkeeping systems…; design and implementation of multimedia integrated records management programs…; and information terchnologies." The description of the archival science component presented this conclusive remark: "Proper attention should be given to the development of new records formats, due to changing information technologies for the creation, maintenance and use of records, and to emerging automated systems for archives. The challenges posed by these two phenomena to archival thinking and practice must be explored." (19)

Today, it is generally agreed that no archival course can be taught without specific reference to electronic records and information systems. The study of the nature and of the management throughout their life-cycle of traditional and electronic records cannot be divorced, because in principle the two must be understood and controlled according to the same theory and methodology and in an integrated fashion. However, while most issues specific to electronic records and systems can be easily incorporated within existing courses (e.g., copyright and privacy issues in a course on the juridical system; authenticity issues in a course on the nature of archival material), some issues need to be dealt with in such detail that a separate course at advanced level may be required. They relate to the different types of database containing records or constituting records themselves; to strategies for dealing with technological obsolescence; to systems documentation, system analysis, etc.

It is primarily a question of available time: the amount of knowledge that we are developing about electronic records and that needs to be transmitted to the students would overwhelm the courses on the theory and methods of recordkeeping, appraisal, arrangement and description, preservation, public service, etc. However, it is also a question of good pedagogy: instruction on the theoretical and methodological foundations of the archival science and discipline should not be burdened by long discussions of practical manifestations of contemporary technology, soon made irrelevant by its obsolescence.

It is a different matter when we refer to the need to prepare archivists to apply computer technology to their work. As I mentioned earlier in connection with arrangement and description and public service, we have to teach students the fundamentals of building archival information systems or databases, including those used to control both current and non-current records, the search and retrieval tools available on the Internet, and all sorts of standards necessary to communicate and make accessible archival holdings to the public at large. In other words, archival students must become experts in the use of information technology for their own archival purposes.

Another area of instruction that needs to be incorporated into archival curricula is that of management, as aspiring archivists must be intellectually equipped for their role of managing archival institutions and programs. In this regard, Peter Drucker notes that professionals will have "to be prepared to live and work simultaneously in two cultures-that of the 'intellectual,' who focuses on words and ideas, and that of the 'manager,' who focuses on people and work…The intellectual's world, unless counterbalanced by the manager, becomes one in which everybody does his own thing but nobody achieves anything. The manager's world, unless counterbalanced by the intellectual, becomes the stultifying bureaucracy of the "Organization Man." But if the two balance each other, there can be creativity and order, fulfillment and mission." (20) Of course, this balance is very difficult to reach, because archival graduates, at the beginning of their career, need the knowledge and attitudes helping them to flourish at the junior level, while later on they need skills related to the management of institutions and large human and financial resources. The golden mean is probably to impress upon the students good principles of management, from which they will later on develop specific skills with the help of experience and of continuing education.

Another balance that it is difficult to establish and maintain within a program of archival education is that between scholarly and experiential studies. The importance of a genuine professional education goes well beyond the guarantee of simple competence, however much society may rely upon it. This education must provide the social vision and idealism that separates the professional from others who possess only technical skills. The elaboration of a socially sensitive and dynamic knowledge base ensures that the profession maintains a stimulating environment for its members, who are required to engage in a continuing evaluation of the theoretical foundations of their field and their practical applications. For this reason, students should be active participants in the definition and expansion of the archival science and discipline by carrying out research both in the context of course work and on its own right, in the form of a directed independent study or a thesis. The Canadian education guidelines state: "The thesis is essential in a graduate archival programme as the expression of the intellectual nature of archival disciplines, of the scholarly substance of archival work, and of the status of the archival programme with respect to other graduate programmes." Similarly, the American guidelines read: "Scholarly research is an essential component of the archival studies curriculum because it establishes in the student the habit of thinking critically and rigorously about archival issues….Writing a thesis provides students with a fundamental learning experience, and it gives them the opportunity to offer an original contribution to the professional literature." (21) I would add that, in those countries where archival literature is lacking, students' theses, essays, and research articles constitute the most effective way of building it. In order to support the scholarly work of the students, an archival program should be offering a course in research methods or, more specifically, on archival research and scholarship. Instruction in the former, including quantitative and qualitative methods, would also complement the management education of archival students, as studies of archival users and uses, for example, are today essential support to decision making. Instruction in the latter would guide the students through the research processes actually followed in the course of real research projects either in course or concluded. Moreover, students should be involved in the research projects carried out by their teachers as research assistants, and should be constantly encouraged to write reviews of archival literature and to publish in archival journals in the course of their education.

Both Guidelines also encourage curriculum designers to include in archival education programs a practicum or internship in an archival institution. Both point out one essential character of the internship, that it "is not an exercise to discover theory and methods empirically; rather it is an opportunity for students to verify their understanding of archival principles by applying them in real-life situations." (22) Thus, the internship is not meant to provide competence but to observe the impact of archival theory and methods in the daily practices of a specific institution with its own unique structure, material, users, traditions, and routines. (23)

Thus, archival programs must strive to educate professionals who are intellectuals and managers, scholars and practitioners, and, last, but not least, members of the international archival community as well as knowledgeable, active participants of their own local culture, tradition, and socio-political environment. This final balance between the universal and the particular (i.e., national and local) components of archival education is the most difficult to establish and maintain. Michael Cook recognized it already in 1982, when he wrote that archivists have to deal on the one hand with a universal body of theory and a general trend towards the development and adoption of international standards, values, and ethical principles, and on the other hand "with the specific, local and unique aspects of the documentation they handle." (24)

One of the ways of dealing with the dichotomy of universal and particular components in a program of archival education is to keep clearly separate the delivery of instruction in the core archival knowledge (comprising archival theory and methods) from the delivery of instruction in contextual knowledge (comprising the study of the administrative-legal system and perhaps of the history of the archival institutions and profession in the specific country), in the philological disciplines (comprising the study of past scripts, languages, documentary forms, etc.), and in the managerial aspects of archival work. Of course, the training component of each course (for example, the arrangement of a body of records) will also reveal how general principles, when applied to specific realities, result in different outcomes. However, an education harmonizing the universal and the particular will quite naturally result from an autonomous, self-contained curriculum that celebrates the archival point of view in every subject it teaches by delivering a compelling and coherent body of theory, making it relevant to the practices of archives, and developing in the students a professional identity and vocational commitment through scholarly work and professional involvement in archival associations and communities.

This pre-appointment, graduate program of education should follow a first degree in any discipline, consistently with the fact that records are generated by all human endeavors, and therefore all kinds of knowledge bases are needed to understand them. The qualifications provided by such program should eventually be required of any person who wishes to enter any "record profession." The program should be centered on the delivery of knowledge of the archival science and discipline, but include contextual, philological, managerial, and technological knowledge. It should be able to incorporate in its own curriculum new knowledge as it develops and to provide regular opportunities for learning from professionals in the field about new initiatives, research projects, and tests, and for providing input to them. In fact, the dynamism of archival knowledge relies on the intellectual tensions produced by programs of education and constructive debate within the field. This dynamism, if maintained, permits a ready and ongoing responsiveness to the demands and priorities of the creators of archives, the society in which the profession works, and the cultural and socio-economic operators, who are the ultimate judges of the value of the archivists produced by education programs and of the archives administered by them.

There is no doubt that the process of profession-building begins and ends in a layered struggle that is at once profoundly intellectual, highly practical, and intensely political. (25) For this reason, much space must be left for flexibility where it does not damage the integrity of professional archival education and does not compromise its outcomes. The areas where several different scenarios are possible relate to infrastructure, overall length of the program, and types of credentials. It has been argued that programs of archival education, being multidisciplinary in character, should be attached to other departments to take practical advantage of their intellectual assets, technical strengths, and of the status and influence of the host. Both the Canadian and the American guidelines, while supporting the idea of an autonomous program, have assumed attachment to a larger department, like history or information science, and provided analysis of possible locations. (26) One could even go further in either direction. Archival education could be delivered in several forms in a autonomous center for archival studies offering a selection of diplomas, certificates, degrees, and opportunities for research programs. Or, it could be jointly administered by two or more departments, or faculties (e.g., arts and law, law and business administration, arts and computer science), or even universities.

As to the length of archival education, I believe that what is relevant is the numbers of hours of instruction in each of the areas of knowledge identified above, rather than the overall length of the program. Although it has been abundantly proven that the amount of learning a student does is directly proportional to the amount of time he has to dwell on and absorb a subject, so that thirty-nine hours of instruction are more fruitful if administered over a period of four months rather than four weeks, it is more and more important to accommodate the needs of working students and of archival institutions, and this may require intensive periods of classes, followed by periods of independent study, or brief periods of attendance complemented by classes taken and research conducted in the student's place of residence. What this implies for a Master of Archival Studies is that its classical structure-two years, including an internship in the summer following the first year and the writing of the thesis in the summer following the second year-- may undergo several variations, and its degree may be taken in one intense year of four terms or over many years.

Finally, flexibility must be built into the offering of credentials. The archival community worldwide has generally agreed that an archival credential, like all professional credentials, must be post-graduate. In other words, archival students need to have already a degree before beginning their professional education. However, archival education could be laddered towards a graduate degree, by building a program leading to a diploma in archival studies first. Then, those who wish to obtain a graduate degree, should be given the possibility to add course and research work to that already completed for the diploma and fulfill the total requirements for a master's degree. Moreover, in consideration of the fact that archival knowledge is in continuing development, particularly as a consequence of the widespread use of information technologies, it should be possible for archivists who already have a graduate degree to return to study a battery of courses in new areas or in areas on which research and technology have had a dramatic impact, and to obtain an certificate of advanced studies. Different combinations of credentials are possible and should be available, as long as each clearly signifies the mastery of a defined body of knowledge.

I entitled this paper "Archival Education and the Modern Asian Archivist." I have spoken so far about archival education, but I have never mentioned the modern Asian archivist. I guess that the reason is that, to me, an archivist is an archivist is an archivist, no matter where it is that he practices his profession or what his cultural background is. Professional education, after all, has the primary function of revealing to the students the unity at the root of their profession, of instilling in them the indispensable substance under which their different cultures are subsumed, of providing them with a professional mind-set, orientation, sensibility. Asian archivists can shape their own programs of archival education as it best serves their needs, but these programs will necessarily share with the other archival programs worldwide the constituent elements of the conceptual base, the intellectual tools, the occupational competencies, and the principles and values that motivate and inform the archivist's professional purposes. Undoubtedly, the specific content of those elements, tools, competencies, etc. will keep changing. As Tim Ericson states, the question of what archivists need to know "presents us with a moving target. It is not a question that can be answered and then forgotten…It is also not a question with a single answer…Archivists need to adapt to unforeseen change and to do this we must refine or deepen our understanding of theory in light of practice." (27)

And these words bring me back where I started, to those theoretical ideas that come always first and, by guiding research into the new realities we are presented with, allow us to build new archival knowledge and keep our students at the leading edge of their profession. As Terry Eastwood put it, "It is not a question of creating rigid laws, which in any event do not exist even in the physical sciences, to explain reality, but rather a question of recognizing patterns in the generation and management of archives in any given legal and social reality and in any time." (28) By teaching students archival theory and exhorting them to use it as an instrument of inquiry, one teaches them to build knowledge on which to base action in the same manner as the pure disciplines build knowledge, that is on the basis of some abstract body of concepts organized into an internally consistent system. (29) This is the central substance of archival education. If it were all that aspiring archivists will learn in a program of formal education, it would still be more than any combination of subjects that have often been mistaken for the archivist's intellectual armor, and would certainly enable them to deal with the unexpected in the present and to meet the challenges of the future.

(1) Allan Du Pont Breck, "New Dimensions in the Education of American Archivists," American Archivist 29, April 1965: 185

(2) Giovanni Vittani, "La formazione dell'archivista," Annuario del R. Archivio di Stato di Milano, 1913, reprinted in Giovanni Vittani, Scritti di diplomatica e archivistica (Milano: Cisalpino-Goliardica, 1974), 166.

(3) Association of Canadian Archivists, ACA Guidelines for the development of a two-year curriculum for a Master of Archival Studies (Association of Canadian Archivists, 1990), 5. Hereinafter "ACA Guidelines."

(4) This articulation of the structure of archival science was made by Trevor Livelton in "Public Records: A Study in Archival Theory." Master's thesis. The University of British Columbia, 1991, 10-19.

(5) These reflections were made by Roy Shaeffer in "The Knowledge Base and Archival Professionalism in North America: A Political History." Master's thesis. The University of British Columbia, 1997, 75-77.

(6) Society of American Archivists, Guidelines for the Development of a Curriculum for a Master of Archival Studies Degree (Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 1994), 3. Hereinafter "SAA Guidelines."

(7) Shaeffer, 53-54

(8) Terry Eastwood, "Nurturing Archival Education in the University," American Archivist 51 (Summer 1988): 228-251.

(9) Luciana Duranti, "The Archival Body of Knowledge: Archival Theory, Method, and Practice, and Graduate and Continuing Education, " Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 34, winter 1993: 14

(10) Luciana Duranti, "Diplomatics: New Uses for an Old Science," Archivaria 28-33 (1989-1992); now reprint as a book by the Society of American Archivists and Scarecrow Press (1998).

(11) Hilary Jenkinson, "Roots," Selected Writings of Sir Hilary Jenkinson, Roger Ellis and Peter Walne eds. (Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1980), 373

(12) ACA Guidelines, p. 17; SAA Guidelines, p. 11.

(13) Terry Eastwood, "Reforming the archival Curriculum to meet contemporary needs," Archivaria 42 (Fall 1996): 83.

(14) Ibid.

(15) Quoted by Ernst Posner, "European Experiences in Training Archivists," Archives and the Public Interest, Kenneth W. Munden ed. (Washington, D.C.: Public Affaires Pr., 1967), 45.

(16) Tom Nesmith, "Professional Education in the Most Expansive Sense," Archivaria 42 (Fall 1996): 92.

(17) Shaeffer, 61-70.

(18) "Electronic Curriculum Conference," SAA Newsletter (May 1991): 12. SAA Guidelines, p. 12.

(19) SAA Guidelines, p.12.

(20) Peter F. Drucker, Post-Capitalist Society (New York, 1994), 215.

(21) ACA Guidelines, p. 15; SAA Guidelines, p. 13.

(22) SAA Guidelines, p.13.

(23) ACA Guidelines, p. 15.

(24) Michael Cook, Guidelines for curriculum development in records management and the administration of modern archives: a RAMP study (Paris: Unesco, 1982), p. 37.

(25) Shaeffer, 1

(26) SAA Guidelines, p. 6; ACA Guidelines, p. 9.

(27) Tim Ericson, "Forming 'Structures of Exquisite Beauty': Archivists and Education," Archivaria 46 (Fall 1996): 121.

(28) Terry Eastwood, "Nurturing Archival Education in the University," American Archivist 51 (Summer 1988): 235.

(29) For the content of archival theory, see Luciana Duranti, "Archival Science," Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, Allen Kent ed., vol. 59 (New York, Basel, Hong Kong: Marcel Dekker, INC., 1996), pp. 1-19.